The Delhi Sultanate, also known as the Sultanate of Delhi, was a Muslim empire that dominated large parts of the Indian subcontinent for a span of 320 years, from 1206 to 1526. It emerged following the invasion of South Asia by the Ghurid dynasty and witnessed the rule of five distinct dynasties: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). This sultanate covered extensive territories in present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and southern Nepal.
The foundation of the Delhi Sultanate was established by Muhammad Ghori, who defeated the Rajput Confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192. This marked the beginning of a series of rule transitions by various Turkic slave-generals under the Ghurid dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Notable rulers of this period included Taj al-Din Yildiz, Qutb al-Din Aibak, Bahauddin Tughril, and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha.
The successive dynasties oversaw significant developments and expansions. The Khalji and Tughlaq dynasties orchestrated swift Muslim conquests into South India, while the Tughlaq dynasty, under Muhammad bin Tughluq, reached the zenith of its geographical influence. However, the Delhi Sultanate faced challenges, including the devastating raid by Central Asian conqueror Tamerlane in 1398, which triggered political transformations and the rise of rival powers.
During its existence, the Delhi Sultanate had a profound impact on the Indian subcontinent. It integrated the region into international Islamic networks, influenced linguistic and architectural developments (such as the Hindustani language and Indo-Islamic architecture), and withstood Mongol invasions. The sultanate also saw significant cultural interactions as migrants from Central Asia contributed to the establishment of Islamic culture in the subcontinent.
The Delhi Sultanate’s history is intertwined with the broader context of Turkic migrations from Central Asia and the decline of the Islamic Caliphate, leading to the rise of Mamluk Sultanates across various regions. The expansionist efforts of Muhammad of Ghor and his successors set the stage for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate as a dominant political and cultural force in medieval India.
Delhi Sultanate Rulers
The Delhi Sultanate saw the rule of several dynasties, each with its own set of rulers. Here is a list of the rulers from each dynasty that governed the Delhi Sultanate:
Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290):
- Qutb al-Din Aibak (1206–1210)
- Aram Shah (1210–1211)
- Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211–1236)
- Rukn-ud-din Firuz (1236)
- Razia Sultana (1236–1240)
- Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240–1242)
- Ala-ud-din Masud (1242–1246)
- Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–1266)
- Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–1287)
- Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad (1287–1290)
Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320):
- Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji (1290–1296)
- Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)
- Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah Khalji (1316–1320)
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1413):
- Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq (1320–1325)
- Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351)
- Mahmud Ibn Muhammad (1351)
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388)
- Nasir-ud-din Muhammad (1389–1390)
- Sikandar Shah I (1390–1394)
- Mahmud Nasir-ud-din (1394)
- Nusrat Shah (1394–1399)
- Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (1399–1413)
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451):
- Khizr Khan (1414–1421)
- Mubarak Shah (1421–1434)
- Muhammad Shah (1434–1445)
- Alam Shah (1445–1451)
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526):
- Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451–1489)
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517)
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526)
These are the main rulers from each dynasty, and there were often shorter reigns, rival claimants, and complex power dynamics during the Delhi Sultanate’s history.
Overview of the Delhi Sultanate dynasties and some main points to focus
Delhi Sultanate Dynasties:
1. Mamluk Dynasty (Slave Dynasty) – 1206 to 1290:
- Qutb al-Din Aibak founded the dynasty after the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan.
- Introduction of the Mamluk (Turkic slave) system in administration.
- Qutb Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque constructed during this period.
- Iltutmish established a strong administration and introduced the Silver Tanka currency.
- Razia Sultana became the first female ruler of Delhi but faced opposition from nobles.
2. Khalji Dynasty – 1290 to 1320:
- Ala-ud-din Khalji was a powerful ruler known for his administrative and military reforms.
- Introduction of the ‘Market Control’ system and reforms in the revenue system.
- Establishment of the ‘Hazar Dinari’ coin.
- Successful campaigns in Deccan against the Yadavas and annexation of Gujarat.
3. Tughlaq Dynasty – 1320 to 1414:
- Muhammad bin Tughluq shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, which led to administrative issues.
- Introduction of token currency and unsuccessful expeditions.
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq built canals, mosques, and the Firoz Shah Kotla fort.
- Decline of the dynasty due to internal rebellions and external invasions.
4. Sayyid Dynasty – 1414 to 1451:
- Khizr Khan founded the dynasty after the decline of the Tughlaqs.
- Weak rule and loss of territory to regional powers.
- Beginning of the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Lodi Dynasty – 1451 to 1526:
- Bahlul Khan Lodi established the dynasty after the decline of the Sayyids.
- Sikandar Lodi introduced a strong administration and shifted the capital to Agra.
- Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate.
Architectural Developments
The architectural developments during the Delhi Sultanate period, particularly the Indo-Islamic architecture, showcased a fusion of Central Asian, Iranian, and indigenous Indian styles. The introduction of large Islamic structures, such as mosques and tombs, brought distinctive features that differed from traditional Indian architecture.
The Qutb Complex in Delhi, initiated under Muhammad of Ghor and continued by Qutb al-Din Aibak and later rulers, is a notable example. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque within the complex incorporated reused elements from Hindu and Jain temples. The Qutb Minar, a towering victory tower with intricate inscriptions and decorations, is a defining feature of the complex. The tomb of Iltutmish, added to the complex, displayed elements of Iranian architecture but also exhibited angular carving, reflecting unfamiliar traditions.
Another early mosque, the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, utilized Hindu temple columns to achieve extra height. The construction of true domes and voussoir arches began around 1300, with the ruined Tomb of Balban potentially being one of the earliest examples. The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb Complex demonstrated a cautious approach to new architectural techniques, with thick walls, a shallow dome, and unique decorative elements.
During the Tughlaq dynasty, architectural styles continued to evolve. The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam in Multan, Pakistan, showcased an octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration, reflecting influences from Iran and Afghanistan. The Tughlaqs established a standardized architectural style, employing government architects and builders, often with the involvement of Hindu artisans.
Firuz Shah, a prominent ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, left a significant architectural legacy, including the Firoz Shah Palace Complex and the Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi. The incorporation of Indian architectural features, such as high plinths, mouldings, columns, and hypostyle halls, became more prominent during this period.
As the Delhi Sultanate declined and subsequent dynasties emerged, monumental buildings, particularly tombs, continued to be constructed. The Lodi Gardens in Delhi, created by the Lodi dynasty, showcased charbagh gardens, tombs, mosques, and other architectural elements.
Overall, the architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period marked a significant blend of cultural influences and architectural techniques, contributing to the rich and diverse heritage of Indo-Islamic architecture.